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Industrial and Process Furnaces

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Principles, Design and Operation

by Peter Mullinger and Barrie Jenkins
The book “Industrial and Process Furnaces” provides a comprehensive reference to all aspects of furnace operation and design.

PREVIEW

Chapter 1 – Introduction

What is a furnace?
- Furnace outline
- Furnace classification
- Principle objectives of furnace designers and operators
Where are furnaces used? Brief review of current furnace applications and technology
- Ceramics, brick making and pottery
- Cement and lime
- Glass making
- Metal ore smelting
- Metal refining
- Flash and fluid bed furnaces
- Metal physical processing
- Incinerators and resource recovery furnaces
- Furnaces with reducing atmospheres
- Oil refining and petrochemical furnaces
Drivers for improved efficiency
Concluding remarks

Chapter 2 – The combustion process

Simple combustion chemistry
- The complete oxidation of carbon
- The complete oxidation of hydrogen
- The incomplete oxidation of carbon
- The oxidation of carbon monoxide
Combustion calculations
Chemical reaction kinetics
- Types of reactions
- Reaction rate theory
- Reaction rate behaviour
- Burning droplets and particles
The physics of combustion
- The role of primary air
- The role of swirl flows
- Turbulence in jets
- Secondary flow aerodynamics
- Effect of excess air on fuel consumption
- Multiple burner installations

Chapter 3 – Fuels for furnaces

Gaseous fuels
- Properties of natural gas
- Manufactured gas
- Wobbe number or index
- Flammability limits
  - Calculation of the flammable limits for mixtures of gases
  - Influence of temperature and pressure on the limits
- Flame radiation from gaseous fuels
Liquid fuels
Solid fuels
- Ash
Waste fuels
Choice of fuel
- Furnace performance
  - Heat transfer
  - Furnace atmosphere
  - Flexibility of operation
  - Effect of ash
  - Refractory life
  - Fuel cost and security of supply
  - Fuel handling system capital and running costs
- Safety
- Emissions
- Solid fuel bibliography

Chapter 4 – An introduction to heat transfer in furnaces

Conduction
- Steady state conduction
- Transient conduction
  - Analytical approach
  - Numerical approach
- Convection
  - Dimensional analysis
  - Application to convective heat transfer
  - Evaluating convective heat transfer coefficients
  - High temperature convective heat transfer
- Radiation
  - Physical basics of radiative exchange
  - Emissivity and absorptivity
  - View factors
    - Equivalent grey surface
  - Mean beam length
- Electrical heating
  - Resistance heating
    - Direct resistance heating
    - Indirect resistance heating
    - Arc heating
    - Electrode devices
    - Electrodeless devices
  - Induction heating
  - Dielectric heating
  - Infrared heating
- Appendix 4A Tables of emissivity data

Chapter 5 – Flames and burners for furnaces

Types of flame
Premixed flames
Turbulent jet diffusion flames
Heterogeneous combustion
- Atomisation of liquid fuels and pulverisation of coal
- The importance of drop and particle size
Function of a burner and basics of burner design
- The essential importance of heat flux profiles
- Flame stabilisation
Gas burners
- Premixed burners
  - Effect of excess air (mixture ratio) on flame temperature
  - Radiant wall burners
  - Use of premix burners in low NOx applications
  - Safety issues with premix burners
  - Size limitations
- Turbulent jet diffusion burners
- Precessing jet diffusion burners
- Oil burners
  - Turndown
  - Atomisers
    - Pressure jet atomisers
    - Twin fluid atomisers
  - Pulverised coal burners
  - Furnace aerodynamics
  - Burner and furnace air flow patterns
    - Single burner systems
      - Package burner installations
      - Rotary kilns and driers, etc.
    - Multiple burner systems
    - Combustion air duct design
    - Common windbox and plenum design
    - Combustion system scaling
    - Example of combustion system scaling
  - Furnace noise
    - Combustion roar
    - Nozzle and turbulent jet noise
    - Fan noise
    - Pipe and valve noise
    - Furnace noise attenuation
    - Combustion driven oscillations

Chapter 6 – Combustion and heat transfer modelling

Physical modelling
- Thring-Newby parameter
- Craya-Curtet parameter
- Becker throttle factor
- Curtet number
- Relationship between scaling parameters
- Determining the required model flows
- Applying the scaling parameter
- Applying a post-measurement correction
Mathematical modelling
- Simple well-stirred furnace models
- Long furnace models
- Two- and three-dimensional zone models
- Computational fluid dynamics models
  - Gridding of CFD models
  - Convergence of CFD models
- Particle drag in combustion systems
Application of modelling to furnace design

Chapter 7 – Fuel handling systems

Gas valve trains
- Safety shutoff systems
  - Double block and bleed
  - Leak testing and proving
- Fuel oil handling systems
  - Storage, pumping and heating
  - Oil valve trains
- Pulverised coal handling and firing systems
  - Raw coal bunkers and feeders
  - Coal grinding and drying
    - Coal drying characteristics
  - Coal mills
    - Ball mills
    - Vertical spindle mills
    - High speed mills
  - Coal mill grinding capacity
    - Coal fineness
    - Coal dryness
  - Pulverised coal grinding and firing systems
    - Direct and indirect firing systems
    - Direct firing
    - Semi-direct firing
    - Indirect firing
    - Semi-indirect firing
  - Coal system drying capacity
  - Coal firing system fans
  - Fine coal storage
  - Fine coal feeding and conveying
    - Volumetric feeders
    - Mass flow feeders
  - Pulverised coal conveying
- Waste fuel handling
  - Waste gas fuel handling
  - Waste liquid fuel handling
  - Solids waste fuel handling
    - Size distribution
  - Environmental benefits and health hazards of waste fuel utilisation
- Applicable codes and standards

Chapter – 8 Furnace control and safety

Process control
- Basic furnace control strategies
  - Control of product temperature
  - Fuzzy logic and rule-based systems
- Furnace instrumentation
  - Temperature measurement
  - Heat input measurement
    - Flow measurement of liquid and gaseous fuels
    - Calorific value measurement
    - Solid fuels
  - Determination of excess air
- Flue gas analysis
  - Extractive gas sampling systems and analysers
    - Sample probe installation
    - Cold gas extractive systems
    - Hot wet gas extractive systems
    - Dilution extractive systems
  - In-situ systems
    - Dust monitors
    - Oxygen analysers
    - Cross-duct analysers
  - Combustion control
  - Ensuring furnace safety
    - Risk factors in furnace operation
    - Furnace start-up
      - Critical time for ignition during furnace start-up
    - Operation with insufficient combustion air
      - Corrective action for unintentional sub-stoichiometric operation
    - Flame quenching
    - Eliminating ignition sources
  - Burner management systems
    - Safety requirements for burner management systems
    - False trips
    - Achieving acceptable safety standards with programmable logic controller burner management systems
    - Choosing an appropriate safety integrity level
    - Determining the safety integrity level of the BMS system
    - Flame detectors

Chapter 9 – Furnace efficiency

Furnace performance charts
Mass and energy balances
- On-site measurement
  - Flue gas sampling and analysis
  - Calibration and errors in plant instrumentation
- Constructing mass and energy balances
Energy conversion
- Low and high grade heat
- Exergy and pinch point analysis
Heat recovery equipment
- Recuperative heat exchangers
- Regenerative heat exchangers
- General heat exchanger design procedure
Identifying efficiency improvements

Chapter 10 – Emissions and environmental impact

Formation of carbon monoxide
Formation of nitrogen oxides
- Thermal NOx formation
- Fuel NOx formation
- Prompt NOx formation
- NOx modelling
Formation of sulphur oxides
Formation of intermediate combustion products
- Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
- PCBs, dioxins and furans
Particulate emissions
- Formation of soot
- Formation and composition of fuel ash
- Non-combustible volatile cycles
Environmental control of emissions
- Prevention and abatement of emissions
  - Pre-flame control
  - In-flame control
  - End-of-pipe control
- Dispersion modelling

Chapter 11 – Furnace construction and materials

Basic performance requirements of the furnace structure
- Basic construction methods
- Brick lining
- Monolithic linings
  - Castable refractory
  - Traditional installation of castable refractory
  - Installation of castable refractory by gunning
  - Drying and curing of cast and gunned refractory
  - Mouldable and rammable refractories
- Furnace steelwork
- Furnace roof construction
- Furnace cooling systems
Practical engineering considerations in the use of refractories
Ceramic refractory materials
- Testing of refractories
- Properties and uses of refractories
  - Silica and siliceous refractories
  - Alumina and aluminous refractories
  - Chromite/magnesite/alumina refractories
  - Dolomite refractories
  - Zircon and zirconia refractories
  - Carbon refractories
  - Insulating refractories
- Heat resisting and refractory metals
  - Effect of elevated temperature on metal properties
  - High temperature alloys
    - Service temperature
    - Intergranular corrosion
    - Proprietary high nickel alloys
  - Practical engineering considerations in the use of high temperature metals
  - Concluding remarks
  - Selection of relevant standards
  - Appendix 11A General properties of selected refractory materials

Chapter 12 – Furnace design methods

Introduction
- Design constraints
- Cost of design changes
Conceptual design
- Process functions
  - Straight-through furnace system
  - Separation furnace system
  - Combining furnace with downstream separation
  - Combining and separation furnace system
- Defining the physical and chemical changes
- Preliminary mass and energy balances
- Reliability of available process knowledge
  - Existing processes
  - New processes and pilot plants
- Effect of upstream and downstream processes
- Fuel choice
  - Fuel chemical compatibility with the process
  - Heat transfer compatibility with the process
- Potential for heat recovery and choice of equipment
  - Estimating the potential for heat recovery from hot product
  - Estimating the potential for heat recovery from hot flue gas
  - Estimating the potential for heat recovery from shell losses or cooling water
  - Economic considerations
- Furnace sizing
  - Slab heating furnace design
  - Oil heating furnace design
  - Aggregate processing furnace
- Burner selection
- Detailed analysis and validation of the furnace design
- Furnace instrumentation and controls

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