Mechanical Properties and Working of Metals and Alloys / Amit Bhaduri (2018)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BRIEF CONTENTS

Part I – Mechanical Properties of Metals and Alloys

1 Tension

• Introduction
  • Description of Stress at a Point
• Strain
  • True Versus Engineering Strain
  • Advantages of True Strain Over Engineering Strain
  • Poisson’s Ratio and Volume Strain
• Conventional and True Stresses
  • Relationship Between True and Engineering Stresses During Plastic Deformation
• Elastic Stress–Strain Relations
  • Three-Dimensional State of Stress
• Elements of Plastic Deformation
  • Relationship Between Principal Normal and Shear Stresses
  • Mohr’s Stress Circle
  • Slip
  • Twinning
  • Strain Hardening
  • Stacking Fault
  • Strengthening Methods
  • Spherical and Deviator Components of Stress
  • Yielding Criteria for Ductile Metals
  • Octahedral Shear Stress and Shear Strain
  • Invariants of Stress and Strain
  • Levy–Mises Equations for Ideal Plastic Solid
  • Yielding Criteria Under Plane Strain
• Types of Tensile Stress–Strain Curve
  • Type I: Elastic Behaviour
  • Type II: Elastic–Homogeneous Plastic Behaviour
  • Type III: Elastic–Heterogeneous Plastic Behaviour
  • Type IV: Elastic–Heterogeneous–Homogeneous Plastic Behaviour
  • Type V: Elastic–Heterogeneous–Homogeneous Plastic Behaviour for Some Crystalline Polymers
• Linear Elastic Properties
  • Modulus of Elasticity
  • Proportional and Elastic Limit
  • Resilience and Modulus of Resilience
• Nonlinear Elastic Properties
  • Secant and Tangent Modulus
  • Elastomer or Rubber Elasticity
  • Elastic Resilience or Resilience
• Inelastic Properties
  • Yield Strength
  • Ultimate and True Tensile Strength
  • Ductility
  • Fracture Strength and True Fracture Strength
  • Toughness
• Influence of Temperature on Tensile Properties
  • Effect of Temperature on Stress–Strain Curve of Mild Steel
• Strain Rate
  • Relation Between Flow Stress and Strain Rate
  • Superplasticity
  • Effect of Strain Rate on Stress–Strain Curve of Mild Steel
• Testing Machine
  • Influence of Testing Machine on Strain and Strain Rate
• Notch Tensile Test
• Tensile Fracture
• Solved Problems

2 Compression

• Introduction
• Standard Specimen
• Elastic Range
• Plastic Range
  • Stress and Strain
  • Strain Rate
  • Brittle Materials
  • Ductile Materials
• Bauschinger Effect
• Advantages of Compression Over Tension Test
• Problems in Compression Test
  • Buckling
  • Barreling
• Compressive Failure of Materials
• Solved Problems

3 Hardness

• Introduction
• Classification of Hardness
• Precautions to Avoid Erratic Hardness Measurement
• Mohs’ Scale of Hardness
• File Hardness Test
• Brinell Hardness
  • Principle of Testing
  • Derivation for BHN
  • Indenters, Loads and Loading Periods
  • Method of Testing
  • Anomalous Behaviour
  • Advantages and Disadvantages
• Meyer Hardness
  • Meyer’s Law
  • Load Sensitivity
  • Influence of P/D²
• Rockwell Hardness
  • Principle of Testing
  • Loads
  • Indenters
  • Direct-Reading Hardness Dial
  • Hardness Scale
  • Method of Testing
  • Advantages
• Rockwell Superficial Hardness
  • Principle of Operation
  • Superficial Hardness Scale
  • Merits and Demerits
• Vickers Hardness
  • Indenters and Loads.
  • Principle of Operation
  • VHN Versus BHN
  • Operational Method
  • Minimum Thickness of Test Section
  • Anomalous Behaviour
  • Advantages and Disadvantages
• Microhardness (Knoop Hardness)
  • Penetrators and Loads
  • Principle of Operation
  • Advantages and Disadvantages
• Monotron Hardness
  • Indenters and Hardness Scales
  • Principle of Operation
  • Advantages and Disadvantages
• Shore Scleroscope Hardness
  • Principle of Testing
  • Mass Effect of Test Piece
  • Advantages
• Poldi Impact Hardness
  • Principle of Testing
  • Use of Supplied Table to Determine BHN
  • Advantages and Disadvantages
• The Herbert Pendulum Hardness
  • Time Test
  • Scale Test
  • Time Work-Hardening Test
  • Scale Work-Hardening Test
• Nanohardness
  • Indenters
  • Derivation for Berkovich Hardness
  • Determination of Contact Depth of Penetration
  • Correction for Machine Compliance
  • Indenter Shape Function
  • Errors Due to Pile-Up
  • Martens Hardness
• Relationship to Flow Curve and Prediction of Tensile Properties
• Solved Problems

4 Bending

• Introduction
• Pure Bending
  • Bending Stresses and Flexure Formula
  • Experimental Method
• Beam Design in Pure Bending
• Linear Elastic Behaviour
  • Important Variables Affecting Modulus of Rupture
  • Modulus of Elastic Resilience
• Yielding
  • Discontinuous Yielding and Shape Factor
• Nonlinear Stress–Strain Relations
• Shear Stresses in Elastically Bent Beam
• Solved Problems

5 Torsion—Pure Shear

• Introduction
• State of Stress and Strain
  • Shear Strain
  • Relation Between Shear Modulus ‘G’ and Young’s Modulus ‘E’
• Relation Between Shear Strain and Angle of Twist
• Torsional Stresses in Elastic Range
  • Relation Between Torque, Shear Modulus and Angle of Twist
  • Computation of Torque in Practical Applications
  • Polar Moment of Inertia, Shear Stress and Angle of Twist
  • Thin-Walled Tube of Arbitrary Cross-Section
• Torsional Stresses for Plastic Strains
• Behaviour of Material in Torsion
  • Testing Equipment
  • Specimen
• Elastic Properties
  • Shear Modulus and Torsional Proportional Limit
  • Torsional Modulus of Elastic Resilience
• Inelastic Properties
  • Torsional Yield Strength
  • Ultimate Torsional Shear Strength or Modulus of Rupture
  • Ductility
• Torsion Test Versus Tension Test
  • Comparison in Terms of State of Stress and Strain
  • Comparison of Ductile Behaviour
  • Torsional Shear Stress–Strain Diagram from Tensile Flow Curve
• Failure Under Torsion
• Solved Problem

6 Impact Loading

• Dynamic Loading and Brittle Fracture
  • Factors Responsible for Brittle Behaviour
• Notched-Bar Impact Tests
  • Single-Blow Pendulum Impact Test
• Calculation of Energy Relations
  • Correction for Energy Losses
• Correction for Energy Losses
  • Correction for Energy Losses
  • Correction for Energy Losses
• Correction for Energy Losses
  • Correction for Energy Losses
• Correction for Energy Losses
• Correction for Energy Losses
  • Correction for Energy Losses
  • Drop Weight Test (DWT)
  • Correction for Energy Losses
  • Dynamic Tear (DT) Test
• Fracture Analysis Diagram (FAD)
  • Correction for Energy Losses
• Solved Problems

7 Creep and Stress Rupture

• Correction for Energy Losses
• Correction for Energy Losses
• Correction for Energy Losses
• Creep Rate–Stress–Temperature Relations
• Steady-State Creep
  • Effect of Grain Size
  • Activation Energy
• Creep Deformation Mechanisms
  • Dislocation Creep or Climb–Glide Creep
  • Diffusional Creep
  • Grain-Boundary Sliding
• Deformation Mechanism Map
• The Stress-Rupture Test
• Concept of ECT and Elevated-Temperature Fracture
  • Wedge-Shaped Cracks and Round or Elliptically Shaped Cavities
• Presentation of Engineering Creep Data
  • Prediction of Creep Strength
  • Prediction of Creep-Rupture Strength
• Parameter Methods to Predict Long-Time Properties
  • Larson–Miller Parameter
  • Orr–Sherby–Dorn Parameter
  • Manson–Haferd Parameter
  • Goldhoff–Sherby Parameter
  • Limitations of Parameter Methods
• Stress Relaxation
  • Step-Down Creep Test
• Materials for High-Temperature Use
  • Rules to Develop Creep Resistance
• Creep Under Multiaxial Stresses
• Indentation Creep
  • Method to Obtain Creep Curve Using Rockwell Hardness Tester
• Solved Problems

8 Fatigue

• Fatigue Failure
• Stress Cycles
• Standard Fatigue Test
• The S–N Diagram and Fatigue Properties
  • Reason for Existence of Fatigue Limit
• Statistical Nature of Fatigue
• Fatigue Crack Nucleation and Growth
  • Fatigue Crack Growth Rate
• Effect of Mean Stress
• Stress Fluctuation and Cumulative Fatigue Damage
  • Overstressing, Understressing and Coaxing
  • Cumulative Fatigue Damage
• Stress Concentration Effect
• Size Effect
• Surface Effects and Surface Treatments
  • Surface Roughness and Treatment
  • Surface Properties and Treatment
  • Surface Residual Stress and Treatment
  • Metallurgical Processes Detrimental to Fatigue
• Effect of Metallurgical Variables
• Frequency of Stress Cycling
• Temperature Effect
  • Low Temperature
  • High Temperature
  • Thermal Fatigue
• Chemical Effects
• Cyclic Strain-Controlled Fatigue
  • Low-Cycle Fatigue
  • Strain–Life Equation and Curve
• Creep–Fatigue Interaction
• Increasing Amplitude Tests
  • Step Test
  • Prot Test
• Solved Problems

9 Fracture

• Introduction
• Theoretical Cohesive Strength
• Inglis Analysis of Stress Concentration Factor
• Effects of Notch
• Characteristic Features of Fracture Process
  • Energy to Fracture
  • Macroscopic Mode of Fracture
  • Microscopic Mode of Fracture or Fractography
• Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture
  • Applicability of Griffith Theory
  • Modification of Griffith Theory
• Elastic Strain Energy Release Rate
• Stress Intensity Factor
  • Different Crack Surface Displacements
  • Relationship Between Energy Release Rate and Stress Intensity Factor
  • Fracture Toughness
• Plastic Zone at Crack Tip
  • Effective Stress Intensity Factor
• Fracture Toughness: Plane Stress Versus Plane Strain
• Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness (K_Ic) Testing
  • Specimen Size, Configurations, and Preparation
  • Correction for Energy Losses, Interpretation of Result and Calculation of (K_Ic)
  • K_c from K_Ic
• Design Philosophy with Fracture Toughness
• Solved Problems

Part II – Mechanical Working of Metals and Alloys

10 Fundamentals of Mechanical Working

• Classification of Mechanical Forming Processes
  • Aims of Mechanical Working
  • Different Forming Processes
• Temperature and Strain Rate
  • Cold-Work-Anneal Cycle
  • Temperature Limits for Hot Working
  • Hot Working Versus Cold Working
  • Warm Working
  • Temperature Change During Working
  • Strain-Rate Effects
  • Choice of Allowable Hot Working Temperature Range
• Friction
  • Coulomb’s Law of Sliding Friction
  • Shear Friction Factor
  • Measurement of Friction
  • Adverse Effects of Friction
  • Beneficial Effects of Friction
• Lubrication
  • Material Transfer
  • Functions and Characteristics of a Lubricant
  • Lubrication Mechanism
• Mechanics of Working Process
  • Slab Method
  • Uniform-Deformation Energy Method
  • Slip-Line Field Theory
  • Upper-Bound Technique
  • Finite Element Method
• Deformation-Zone Geometry
• Anisotropy of Mechanical Properties
• Solved Problems

11 Forging

• Classification of Forging Processes
• Types of Forging Operations
• Forging Equipments
  • Drop Forging Hammer
  • Forging Press
• Open-Die Forging
• Closed-Die or Impression-Die Forging
  • Flash
  • Draft
  • Radii
  • Parting Line
  • Design Steps
• Material Loss During Forging
• Plane Strain Forging of Flat Rectangular Plate
  • Coulomb Sliding Friction
  • Sliding with Shear Friction Factor and Sticking Friction
  • Mixed Sticking–Sliding Friction
  • Selection of Proper Equation for Forging Load
• Plane Strain Forging of Strip with Inclined Dies
  • Strip Thickness at Neutral Plane and Its Location
• Forging of Flat Circular Disk
  • Coulomb Sliding Friction
  • Sliding with Shear Friction Factor and Sticking Friction
  • Mixed Sticking–Sliding Friction
  • Selection of Proper Equation for Forging Load
• Forging of Circular Disk by Conical Pointed Dies
• Forging Defects
• Solved Problems

12 Rolling

• Fundamentals of Rolling
  • Terminology of Rolled Product
  • Different Methods of Rolling
  • Quantities Characterizing Deformation
• Classification of Rolling Mills
  • Cluster Mill
  • Sendzimir Cold-Rolling Mill
  • Sendzimir Planetary Hot-Rolling Mill
  • Pendulum Mill
  • Contact-Bend-Stretch Mill
  • Universal Mill
• Rolling Practice
  • Hot Rolling
  • Cold Rolling
• Deformation Zone in Rolling
  • Angle of Bite
  • Neutral Point
• Ekelund Expression for No-Slip Angle
• Forward Slip
  • Relation with No-Slip Angle
  • Measurement of Forward Slip
  • Importance of Forward Slip
• Elastic Deformation of Rolls
  • Roll Flattening
  • Roll Deflection
• Simplified Assessment of Rolling Load
  • Ekelund Equation for Rolling Load
• Theory of Rolling: Derivation of Differential Equation
  of Friction Hill
• Bland and Ford Theory of Cold Rolling
  • Cold Rolling with no External Tensions
  • Cold Rolling with Back and Front Tensions
  • No-Slip Angle in Cold Rolling
  • Cold-Rolling Load
  • Cold-Rolling Torque
  • Maximum Allowable Back Tension
  • Estimation of Friction Coefficient
• Sims’ Theory of Hot Rolling
  • No-Slip Angle in Hot Rolling
  • Hot-Rolling Load
  • Hot-Rolling Torque
  • Limitations of Sims’ Theory
  • Mean Strain Rate
• Lever Arm Ratio, Roll Torque and Mill Power
  • Estimation of Lever Arm Ratio from Sims’ Theory
  • Mill Power
• Minimum Thickness in Rolling
• Factors Controlling Rolling
• Gauge Control
• Defects in Rolled Products
• Roll Pass Design Fundamentals
  • Types and Shapes of Passes
  • Gap and Taper of Sides in Pass
  • Pass Arrangement
  • Pass Sequences Used in Rolling of Billets to Rods
  • Pass Sequences Used in Rolling of Billets to Square Bars
• Manufacture of Tubes and Pipes
  • Production of Seamless Tube and Pipe by Hot Rolling
• Solved Problems

13 Extrusion

• Introduction
  • Comparison with Rolling
• Two Basic Methods of Extrusion
  • Direct Versus Indirect Extrusion
• Extrusion Equipments
  • Extrusion Dies
• Metal Flow During Extrusion
• Factors Influencing Extrusion
• Estimation of Extrusion Load
  • Open Die, Indirect and Hydrostatic Extrusions
  • Direct Extrusion Through Conical Converging Die
  • Direct Extrusion Through Square Die
  • Selection of Proper Equation for Ram Load and Stress
• Strain Rate in Extrusion
• Extrusion Defects
• Impact Extrusion
• Hydrostatic Extrusion
  • Basic Difference Between Hydrostatic and Conventional Extrusion
  • Conventional Hydrostatic Extrusion
  • Differential Pressure Hydrostatic Extrusion
  • Advantages of Hydrostatic Extrusion
  • Disadvantages of Hydrostatic Extrusion
• Seamless Tube Production by Extrusion
  • Extrusion of Cable Sheathing
• Application of Slip-Line Field to Steady-State Motion
  • 50% Plane-Strain Frictionless Extrusion
  • 2/3 Plane-Strain Frictionless Extrusion
• Upper-Bound Solution for Plane-Strain Frictionless Extrusion
• Solved Problems

14 Drawing: Flat Strip, Round Bar and Tube

• Introduction
• Strip Drawing Through Wedge-Shaped Dies
  • Drawing Stress with Friction
  • Frictionless Ideal Drawing Stress
  • Maximum Reduction of Area in a Single Pass With and Without Friction
  • Drawing Stress for Work-Hardening Strip
• Drawing Stress of Strip Through Cylindrical Dies
• Treatments of Work Metal Prior to Drawing
• Drawing Equipments
  • Conical Converging Die
• Drawing of Rod and Wire
  • Drawing Load and Power with Friction and Back Tension
  • Frictionless Ideal Drawing Stress
  • Maximum Reduction of Area in a Single Pass
  • Redundant Deformation
  • Drawing Stress Versus Die-cone Angle: Optimum Cone Angle, Dead Zone and Shaving
• Tube Drawing
  • Close-Pass Plug Drawing Stress and Load
  • Close-Pass Mandrel Drawing Stress
  • Maximum Reduction of Area in a Single Pass
  • Tube Sinking
  • Equilibrium Condition of Forces Acting on a Floating Plug
• Application of Slip-Line Field to Strip Drawing
• Upper-Bound Solution for Strip Drawing
• Solved Problems

15 Deep Drawing

• Fundamentals of Deep Drawing
  • Stresses and Deformation in a Deep-Drawn Cup
• Deep-Drawing Load
  • Derivation of Mathematical Expression
• Formability
  • Strain Distribution
  • Maximum Strain Levels: The Forming Limit Diagram
• Deep Drawability
  • Plastic Strain Ratio
  • Drawing Ratio
• Effects of Process and Material Variables
  • Effect of Drawing Ratio
  • Radii of Die and Punch
  • Punch-to-Die Clearance
  • Drawing Speed
  • Friction and Lubrication
  • Restraint of Metal Flow
  • Material Parameters
• Evaluation of Formability
  • Marciniak Biaxial Stretching Test
  • Swift Cup Test
  • Ericksen and Olsen Cup Tests
  • Fukui Conical Cup Test
  • Hole Expansion Test
  • Forming Limit Diagram
• Deep Drawing Defects
• Solved Problems

16 High-Energy Rate Forming

• Introduction
• Fundamentals of HERF Process
  • Advantages and Limitations
• Explosive Forming
  • Standoff or Unconfined Technique
  • Contact or Confined Technique
• Electromagnetic Forming
• Electrohydraulic Forming
• High-Energy Rate Forging
• Other HERF Methods
• Solved Problems

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